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Douglas Adams «Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy»
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#backstageToolbar {position:relative;}
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#backstageButton {display:none; position:absolute; z-index:175; top:0em; right:0em;}
#backstageButton a {padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.1em 0.4em; margin:0.1em 0.1em 0.1em 0.1em;}
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.backstagePanelFooter {padding-top:0.2em; float:right;}
.backstagePanelFooter a {padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em 0.4em;}
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/***
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This StyleSheet can be used directly by languages such as Chinese, Japanese and Korean which need larger font sizes.
***/
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#sidebarOptions a {font-style:normal;}
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<div class='header' macro='gradient vert [[ColorPalette::PrimaryLight]] [[ColorPalette::PrimaryMid]]'>
<div class='headerShadow'>
<span class='siteTitle' refresh='content' tiddler='SiteTitle'></span>
<span class='siteSubtitle' refresh='content' tiddler='SiteSubtitle'></span>
</div>
<div class='headerForeground'>
<span class='siteTitle' refresh='content' tiddler='SiteTitle'></span>
<span class='siteSubtitle' refresh='content' tiddler='SiteSubtitle'></span>
</div>
</div>
<div id='mainMenu' refresh='content' tiddler='MainMenu'></div>
<div id='sidebar'>
<div id='sidebarOptions' refresh='content' tiddler='SideBarOptions'></div>
<div id='sidebarTabs' refresh='content' force='true' tiddler='SideBarTabs'></div>
</div>
<div id='displayArea'>
<div id='messageArea'></div>
<div id='tiddlerDisplay'></div>
</div>
<!--}}}-->
<!--{{{-->
<div class='toolbar' macro='toolbar [[ToolbarCommands::ViewToolbar]]'></div>
<div class='title' macro='view title'></div>
<div class='subtitle'><span macro='view modifier link'></span>, <span macro='view modified date'></span> (<span macro='message views.wikified.createdPrompt'></span> <span macro='view created date'></span>)</div>
<div class='tagging' macro='tagging'></div>
<div class='tagged' macro='tags'></div>
<div class='viewer' macro='view text wikified'></div>
<div class='tagClear'></div>
<!--}}}-->
<!--{{{-->
<div class='toolbar' macro='toolbar [[ToolbarCommands::EditToolbar]]'></div>
<div class='title' macro='view title'></div>
<div class='editor' macro='edit title'></div>
<div macro='annotations'></div>
<div class='editor' macro='edit text'></div>
<div class='editor' macro='edit tags'></div><div class='editorFooter'><span macro='message views.editor.tagPrompt'></span><span macro='tagChooser'></span></div>
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To get started with this blank TiddlyWiki, you'll need to modify the following tiddlers: * SiteTitle & SiteSubtitle: The title and subtitle of the site, as shown above (after saving, they will also appear in the browser title bar) * MainMenu: The menu (usually on the left) * DefaultTiddlers: Contains the names of the tiddlers that you want to appear when the TiddlyWiki is opened You'll also need to enter your username for signing your edits: <<option txtUserName>>
These InterfaceOptions for customising TiddlyWiki are saved in your browser Your username for signing your edits. Write it as a WikiWord (eg JoeBloggs) <<option txtUserName>> <<option chkSaveBackups>> SaveBackups <<option chkAutoSave>> AutoSave <<option chkRegExpSearch>> RegExpSearch <<option chkCaseSensitiveSearch>> CaseSensitiveSearch <<option chkAnimate>> EnableAnimations ---- Also see AdvancedOptions
<<importTiddlers>>
<<tiddler SliderFrame with: label http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ 600 400 $2>>
********************************************************************* The Sydney Morning Herald Tech Daily Newsletter ********************************************************************* If you would prefer to receive this email in HTML format (with graphics) go to http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBMew0LvxsN0JhK0BPkn0EH and change your preference from text to HTML. ********************************************************************* Virgin exposes customers' details Security flaw on Virgin Mobile's website exposes customers'personal details including name, address, birth date and phonenumber. Full Story: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBMew0LvxsN0JhK0OhKT0Eu Latest killer app has us all a-Twitter Microblogging is the latest online fad - or perhaps a sign ofthings to come. Dan Skeen enters the fray. Full Story: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBMew0LvxsN0JhK0OhKU0Ev Computer security has 'massively failed' The computing industry relies on "utterly obsolete concepts andassumptions" and has "massively failed when it comes to desktopsecurity". Full Story: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBMew0LvxsN0JhK0OhKV0Ew And the broadband plays on Full Story: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBMew0LvxsN0JhK0OhKW0Ex EU seeks police-private sector cybercrime pact Full Story: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBMew0LvxsN0JhK0OhKX0Ey No super-sized PS3 for Australia Full Story: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBMew0LvxsN0JhK0OhKY0Ez Full Tech Coverage - Full Story: /technology/Oregon man sentenced for posing as dying teen to get young girls tosend him porn A 31-year-old man was sentenced Monday to more than 24 years infederal prison for posing online as a teenage boy dying of leukemiain an effort to coerce young girls into sending him sexuallyexplicit images. Full Story: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBMew0LvxsN0JhK0OhKZ0E1 Oregon man sentenced for posing as dying teen to get young girls tosend him porn A 31-year-old man was sentenced to more than 24 years in federalprison for posing online as a teenage boy dying of leukemia in aneffort to coerce young girls into sending him sexually explicitimages. Full Story: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBMew0LvxsN0JhK0OhKa0E8 New BlackBerry challenger from T-Mobile runs Windows Mobile 6operating system T-Mobile USA on Tuesday launched the first mobile phone in the U.S.to come with Microsoft's latest version of Windows Mobile, withimproved handling of e-mail and tougher security. Full Story: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBMew0LvxsN0JhK0OhKb0EA Wi-Fi better designed for shorter ranges, not citywide deployments Adam DuVander likes to surf the Internet from his laptop wherever he happens to be _ at home, a coffee shop or a neighborhood park. He has been able to do so in recent years thanks to wireless hotspots set up by networking activists in Portland, Ore. Full Story: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBMew0LvxsN0JhK0OhKc0EB Cities Struggle With Wireless Internet A $3 million plan to blanket Lompoc, Calif., with a wireless Internet system promised a quantum leap for economic development: The remote community hit hard by cutbacks at nearby Vandenberg Air Force Base would join the 21st century with cheap and plentiful high-speed access. Instead, nearly a year after its launch, Lompoc Net is limping along. The central California city of 42,000, surrounded by rolling hills, wineries and flower fields more than 17 miles from the nearest major highway, has only a few hundred subscribers. Full Story: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBMew0LvxsN0JhK0OhKd0EC MySpace to Share Sex Offender Data Faced with legal demands from several state attorneys general, MySpace.com said Monday it will immediately begin sharing data on the registered sex offenders it has identified and removed from the popular social networking website. Full Story: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBMew0LvxsN0JhK0OhKe0ED Google, Salesforce.com Discuss Alliance Salesforce.com Inc.'s stock price climbed by more than 4 percent Monday in response to a report that the online software pioneer is poised to team up with Internet search leader Google Inc. in a double-barreled attack on Microsoft Corp. Full Story: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBMew0LvxsN0JhK0OhKf0EE Sometime student who claimed to be doctor, astronaut or spy goes ontrial, accused of rapes A nursing student told women he met on an online dating site thathe was a doctor, an astronaut or spy in a ruse to lure them out sohe could drug and rape them, a prosecutor said Monday. Full Story: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBMew0LvxsN0JhK0OhKg0EF Court Rules in Favor of Phone Companies The nation's largest local phone companies won a Supreme Courtvictory Monday in a lawsuit by consumers alleging anticompetitivebusiness practices. Full Story: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBMew0LvxsN0JhK0OhKh0EG NYC to Be Testbed for Power Project New York City is the testing ground for a $39.3 million Departmentof Homeland Security project that will use new superconductorcables designed to prevent blackouts caused by power surges. Full Story: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBMew0LvxsN0JhK0OhKi0EH Internet pioneer to oversee its redesign under government contract A government contractor that played a key role in the Internet's birth will oversee efforts to redesign the network from scratch. Full Story: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBMew0LvxsN0JhK0OhKj0EI Internet pioneer to oversee its redesign under government contract A government contractor that played a key role in the Internet'sbirth will oversee efforts to redesign the network from scratch. Full Story: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBMew0LvxsN0JhK0OhKk0EJ ********************************************************************* You are currently subscribed to this eNewsletter as: msgray@symbex.net.au, using msgray@symbex.net.au ********************************************************************* UNSUBSCRIBE To unsubscribe from this newsletter use the following link. http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBMew0LvxsN0JhK0BO2Q0Eo&email=msgray@symbex.net.au&username=msgray@symbex.net.au&accountId=2218772 PRIVACY Your privacy is important to us. To view our privacy policy: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBMew0LvxsN0JhK0BNjE0EX CONDITIONS OF USE http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBMew0LvxsN0JhK0BNjF0EY MEMBER AGREEMENT http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBMew0LvxsN0JhK0BNoZ0Ex Copyright Fairfax Digital 2007. All rights reserved. *********************************************************************
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<html><div class="container2"><div class="header2">This is a header</div><div class="left2">!!!<<gradient horiz #FF8888 #ffffff>> Science>> TW Help subjects |What's In A Tiddler|Formatting the Page| |>|Overview| |>|Overview| |>|Overview| <<< <<tiddler MembersWebSites>> <<< </div><div class="content2">!!!<<gradient horiz #FF8888 #ffffff>> ~VooDoo>> TW Help subjects |What's In A Tiddler|Formatting the Page| |>|Overview| |>|Overview| |>|Overview| <<tiddler Images>> </div> <div class="footer2">Copyright 2007 by M.S.Gray (all forms of plagiarism excepted)</div></div></div> </html>
A nice thought, but my ex disputes the first and most of my books are remainders. John W ----- Original Message ----- From: "Nisaba Merrieweather" <nisaba.merrieweather@HOTMAIL.COM> To: <SCIENCE-MATTERS@ABCNEWSLETTERS.NET.AU> Sent: Tuesday, June 26, 2007 2:13 PM Subject: Re: books > G'dday. > >>From: John Winckle <winckle@BROAD.NET.AU> >>Reply-To: ABC Science Matters <SCIENCE-MATTERS@ABCNEWSLETTERS.NET.AU> >>To: SCIENCE-MATTERS@ABCNEWSLETTERS.NET.AU >>Subject: Re: books >>Date: Mon, 25 Jun 2007 12:36:29 +1000 >> >>Thanks for that, I get a lot of flack for having a housefull of books and >>not using the library. > > You're obviously a Good Man who's kind to Defenceless Little Authors. > > Nisaba > > _________________________________________________________________ > Advertisement: ninemsn Travel - Hot deals, travel ideas & Lonely Planet > guides. > http://ninemsn.com.au/share/redir/adTrack.asp?mode=click&clientID=799&referral=hotmailtagline&URL=http://travel.ninemsn.com.au/compIntro.aspx?compId=2404 > > Science-Matters is an un-moderated email list hosted by the ABC as a > forum for public discussion of science, science issues and media coverage > of science. Opinions expressed belong to the individual message poster(s) > and not the ABC. > > To UNSUBSCRIBE, send an email to listserv@abcnewsletters.net.au with the > following words in the body of the message: > signoff science-matters > > More detailed information about the Science-Matters list, plus who to > contact should you experience any problem with unsubscribing, can be found > in the FAQ online at: > http://abc.net.au/science/play/list_matters.htm > > > -- > No virus found in this incoming message. > Checked by AVG Free Edition. Version: 7.5.472 / Virus Database: > 269.9.6/865 - Release Date: 24/06/2007 8:33 AM > > Science-Matters is an un-moderated email list hosted by the ABC as a forum for public discussion of science, science issues and media coverage of science. Opinions expressed belong to the individual message poster(s) and not the ABC. To UNSUBSCRIBE, send an email to listserv@abcnewsletters.net.au with the following words in the body of the message: signoff science-matters More detailed information about the Science-Matters list, plus who to contact should you experience any problem with unsubscribing, can be found in the FAQ online at: http://abc.net.au/science/play/list_matters.htm
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''In this issue (28 June 2007)''
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!!!<<gradient horiz #fc3 #ffffff>> New Scientist>>
[[New Scientist|http://newscientist.com/]]
[[Tech|http://www.newscientisttech.com/]]
[[Space|http://www.newscientistspace.com/]]
[[Health|http://www.newscientist.com/channel/health]]
[[Fundamentals|http://www.newscientist.com/channel/fundamentals]]
[[Being Human|http://www.newscientist.com/channel/being-human]]
[[Life|http://www.newscientist.com/channel/life]]
[[Opinion|http://www.newscientist.com/channel/opinion]]
[[Sex|http://www.newscientist.com/channel/sex]]
[[Specials|http://www.newscientist.com/specials.ns]]>>
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[[Regenerative and Reflex Receivers|http://tinyurl.com/2b22ds]]
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********************************************************************* The Sydney Morning Herald Tech Daily Newsletter ********************************************************************* If you would prefer to receive this email in HTML format (with graphics) go to http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBQCu0LvxsN0JhK0BPkn0Ej and change your preference from text to HTML. ********************************************************************* Paper-thin battery may revolutionise electronics Researchers have invented a lightweight paper battery that could bepowering the next generation of consumer electronic devices. Full Story: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBQCu0LvxsN0JhK0POiy0E6 Police cars get high-tech boost Fighting crime could soon be as easy as tapping on a touch screenwhen the world's most high-tech police cars roll into cop stationsnationwide. Full Story: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBQCu0LvxsN0JhK0POiz0E7 Microsoft closes buyout of aQuantive Microsoft is taking a first step in its quest to leapfrog Yahoo andchallenge Google in the online advertising business. Full Story: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBQCu0LvxsN0JhK0POi10Et Developing a better world Full Story: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBQCu0LvxsN0JhK0POi20Eu IceTV heats up program plans Full Story: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBQCu0LvxsN0JhK0POi30Ev OK, smarty pants, chill me a beer then jump in the washing machine Full Story: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBQCu0LvxsN0JhK0POi40Ew Full Tech Coverage - Full Story: /technology/Microsoft closes $6 billion buyout of aQuantive, wants to challenge Google for top ad spot In closing a $6 billion buyout of digital marketing company aQuantive on Monday, Microsoft is taking a first step in its quest to leapfrog Yahoo and challenge Google in the online advertising business. Full Story: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBQCu0LvxsN0JhK0POi50Ex Microsoft closes $6 billion buyout of aQuantive, wants to challenge Google for top ad spot In closing a $6 billion (euro4.4 billion) buyout of digital marketing company aQuantive on Monday, Microsoft is taking a first step in its quest to leapfrog Yahoo and challenge Google in the online advertising business. Full Story: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBQCu0LvxsN0JhK0POi60Ey U.N. Web site hacked with anti-war message Hackers broke into the official U.N. website and put up an anti-warmessage targeted at the United States and Israel, the UnitedNations said Monday. Full Story: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBQCu0LvxsN0JhK0POi70Ez Holiday shoppers could deliver knockout blow in high-def DVD fight People who own an HD DVD player can forget about watching"Spider-Man 3" in high definition when it goes on sale during theholiday season. The movie from Sony Pictures will only be availablein the Blu-ray DVD format. Full Story: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBQCu0LvxsN0JhK0POi80E1 Hackers post anti-war message on several official U.N. Web sites Computer hackers posted an anti-war message on the U.N.'s officialwebsite, claiming that U.S. and Israeli policies in the Middle Eastwere taking innocent lives, the United Nations said. Full Story: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBQCu0LvxsN0JhK0POjA0EC Researchers use high-tech machines to detect mysterious dark matter In deep underground laboratories around the globe, a high-tech raceis on to spot dark matter, the invisible cosmic glue that'sbelieved to keep galaxies from spinning apart. Full Story: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBQCu0LvxsN0JhK0POjB0ED More similarities than differences in comparison of high-def DVDformats The two competing formats for high-definition DVDs are more alikethan they are different. Full Story: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBQCu0LvxsN0JhK0POjC0EE FCC Tested Defective Prototype Device Microsoft Corp. on Monday gave a simple reason why its prototype for beaming high-speed Internet service over unused television airways failed a government test: the device was broken. Full Story: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBQCu0LvxsN0JhK0POjD0EF `Madden' Video Game Frenzy Begins Anew Say Madden this time of year and most everyone knows the reference is not about the Hall of Fame coach and sportscaster himself. It's about his video game. Full Story: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBQCu0LvxsN0JhK0POjE0EG Researchers Seek Mysterious Dark Matter In deep underground laboratories around the globe, a high-tech race is on to spot dark matter, the invisible cosmic glue that's believed to keep galaxies from spinning apart. Whoever discovers the nature of dark matter would solve one of modern science's greatest mysteries and be a shoo-in for the Nobel Prize. Full Story: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBQCu0LvxsN0JhK0POjF0EH Qualcomm Lawyer Resigns Amid Setbacks Qualcomm Inc. said Monday its head lawyer resigned after a stringof legal setbacks at the world's second-largest chipmaker formobile phones. Full Story: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBQCu0LvxsN0JhK0POjG0EI Putting power on paper: researchers create thin battery US researchers said Monday they have invented a lightweight paper battery that could serve as an enhanced power storage device for the next generation of consumer electronic devices. Full Story: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBQCu0LvxsN0JhK0POjH0EJ ********************************************************************* You are currently subscribed to this eNewsletter as: msgray@symbex.net.au, using msgray@symbex.net.au ********************************************************************* UNSUBSCRIBE To unsubscribe from this newsletter use the following link. http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBQCu0LvxsN0JhK0BO2Q0EI&email=msgray@symbex.net.au&username=msgray@symbex.net.au&accountId=2218772 PRIVACY Your privacy is important to us. To view our privacy policy: http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBQCu0LvxsN0JhK0BNjE0Ez CONDITIONS OF USE http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBQCu0LvxsN0JhK0BNjF0E1 MEMBER AGREEMENT http://newsletters.fairfax.com.au/cgi-bin16/DM/y/eBQCu0LvxsN0JhK0BNoZ0ER Copyright Fairfax Digital 2007. All rights reserved. *********************************************************************
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[img[http://img218.imageshack.us/img218/7518/speakersmqz8.gif]] [[Listen 2CH 1170AM|http://2ch.com/cgi-bin/listenlive.pl]] - [[ Go to Web Site|http://2ch.com.au/welcome.shtml]]
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[[510 Mathematics]] [[520 Astronomy]] [[530 Physics]] [[540 Chemistry]] [[550 Earth Sciences]] [[560 Paleontology]] [[570 Life Sciences]] -[[573 Anthropology]] -[[574 Biology]] [[580 Botany]] [[590 Zoology]]
[[Edit Math Links|Math Links]]
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*<<slider chkMath [[Math Links]] "Click here to open and close Math Links">>
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[[Abacus Applet|JavaAbacus]]
[[Abacus/Soroban Manual|http://webhome.idirect.com/~totton/soroban/THE%20ABACUS%20HANDBOOK.pdf]]
*@@color:#F00;''NEW!''@@ ''[[History of Words of Mathematics|HistoryOfMathWords]]''
*@@color:#F00;''NEW!''@@ ''[[Biographies of Mathematicians|Mathematicians]]''
*@@color:#F00;''NEW!''@@ ''[[History of Mathematics|MathHistoryTopics]]''
*@@color:#F00;''NEW!''@@ ''[[FamousCurves|FamousCurves]]''
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!!!![[Mathematics|510 Mathematics]]
{{textjustify twocolumns{
''The deductive study of'' numbers, geometry, and various abstract constructs, or structures; the latter often “abstract” the features common to several models derived from the empirical, or applied, sciences, although many emerge from purely mathematical or logical considerations. Mathematics is very broadly divided into foundations, algebra, analysis, geometry, and applied mathematics, which includes theoretical computer science.
}}}
!!!Foundations
{{textjustify twocolumns{
''The term foundationsis used to refer to'' the formulation and analysis of the language, axioms, and logical methods on which all of mathematics rests (see logic; symbolic logic). The scope and complexity of modern mathematics requires a very fine analysis of the formal language in which meaningful mathematical statements may be formulated and perhaps be proved true or false. Most apparent mathematical contradictions have been shown to derive from an imprecise and inconsistent use of language. A basic task is to furnish a set of axioms effectively free of contradictions and at the same time rich enough to constitute a deductive source for all of modern mathematics. The modern axiom schemes proposed for this purpose are all couched within the theory of sets, originated by Georg Cantor, which now constitutes a universal mathematical language.
}}}
!!!Algebra
{{twocolumns{
''Historically, algebra is the study of'' solutions of one or several algebraic equations, involving the polynomial functions of one or several variables. The case where all the polynomials have degree one (systems of linear equations) leads to linear algebra.The case of a single equation, in which one studies the roots of one polynomial, leads to field theory and to the so-called Galois theory.
The general case of several equations of high degree leads to algebraic geometry, so named because the sets of solutions of such systems are often studied by geometric methods. Modern algebraists have increasingly abstracted and axiomatized the structures and patterns of argument encountered not only in the theory of equations, but in mathematics generally. Examples of these structures include groups (first witnessed in relation to symmetry properties of the roots of a polynomial and now ubiquitous throughout mathematics), rings (of which the integers, or whole numbers, constitute a basic example), and fields (of which the rational, real, and complex numbers are examples). Some of the concepts of modern algebra have found their way into elementary mathematics education in the so-called new mathematics.
''Some important abstractions recently introduced in'' algebra are the notions of category and functor, which grew out of so-called homological algebra. Arithmetic and number theory, which are concerned with special properties of the integers—e.g., unique factorization, primes, equations with integer coefficients (Diophantine equations), and congruences—are also a part of algebra. Analytic number theory, however, also applies the nonalgebraic methods of analysis to such problems.
}}}
!!!Analysis
{{textjustify twocolumns{
''The essential ingredient of analysis is'' the use of infinite processes, involving passage to a limit. For example, the area of a circle may be computed as the limiting value of the areas of inscribed regular polygons as the number of sides of the polygons increases indefinitely. The basic branch of analysis is the calculus. The general problem of measuring lengths, areas, volumes, and other quantities as limits by means of approximating polygonal figures leads to the integral calculus. The differential calculus arises similarly from the problem of finding the tangent line to a curve at a point. Other branches of analysis result from the application of the concepts and methods of the calculus to various mathematical entities. For example, vector analysis is the calculus of functions whose variables are vectors. Here various types of derivatives and integrals may be introduced. They lead, among other things, to the theory of differential and integral equations, in which the unknowns are functions rather than numbers, as in algebraic equations. Differential equations are often the most natural way in which to express the laws governing the behavior of various physical systems. Calculus is one of the most powerful and supple tools of mathematics. Its applications, both in pure mathematics and in virtually every scientific domain, are manifold.
}}}
!!!Geometry
{{twocolumns textjustify{
''The shape, size, and other properties of'' figures and the nature of space are in the province of geometry. Euclidean geometry is concerned with the axiomatic study of polygons, conic sections, spheres, polyhedra, and related geometric objects in two and three dimensions—in particular, with the relations of congruence and of similarity between such objects. The unsuccessful attempt to prove the “parallel postulate” from the other axioms of Euclid led in the 19th century to the discovery of two different types of non-Euclidean geometry.
''The 20th century has seen'' an enormous development of topology, which is the study of very general geometric objects, called topological spaces, with respect to relations that are much weaker than congruence and similarity. Other branches of geometry include algebraic geometry and differential geometry, in which the methods of analysis are brought to bear on geometric problems. These fields are now in a vigorous state of development.
}}}
!!!Applied Mathematics
{{textjustify twocolumns{
''The term applied mathematics loosely designates'' a wide range of studies with significant current use in the empirical sciences. It includes numerical methods and computer science, which seeks concrete solutions, sometimes approximate, to explicit mathematical problems (e.g., differential equations, large systems of linear equations). It has a major use in technology for modeling and simulation. For example, the huge wind tunnels, formerly used to test expensive prototypes of airplanes, have all but disappeared. The entire design and testing process is now largely carried out by computer simulation, using mathematically tailored software. It also includes mathematical physics, which now strongly interacts with all of the central areas of mathematics. In addition, probability theory and mathematical statistics are often considered parts of applied mathematics. The distinction between pure and applied mathematics is now becoming less significant.
!!!Development of Mathematics
''The earliest records of mathematics'' show it arising in response to practical needs in agriculture, business, and industry. In Egypt and Mesopotamia, where evidence dates from the 2d and 3d millennia B.C., it was used for surveying and mensuration; estimates of the value of ? (pi) are found in both locations. There is some evidence of similar developments in India and China during this same period, but few records have survived. This early mathematics is generally empirical, arrived at by trial and error as the best available means for obtaining results, with no proofs given. However, it is now known that the Babylonians were aware of the necessity of proofs prior to the Greeks, who had been presumed the originators of this important step.
!!!Greek Contributions
''A profound change occurred in the nature and'' approach to mathematics with the contributions of the Greeks. The earlier (Hellenic) period is represented by Thales (6th century B.C.), Pythagoras, Plato, and Aristotle, and by the schools associated with them. The Pythagorean theorem, known earlier in Mesopotamia, was discovered by the Greeks during this period.
''During the Golden Age (5th century B.C.)'', Hippocrates of Chios made the beginnings of an axiomatic approach to geometry and Zeno of Elea proposed his famous paradoxes concerning the infinite and the infinitesimal, raising questions about the nature of and relationships among points, lines, and numbers. The discovery through geometry of irrational numbers, such as ?2, also dates from this period. Eudoxus of Cnidus (4th century B.C.) resolved certain of the problems by proposing alternative methods to those involving infinitesimals; he is known for his work on geometric proportions and for his exhaustion theory for determining areas and volumes.
''The later (Hellenistic) period of Greek science'' is associated with the school of Alexandria. The greatest work of Greek mathematics, Euclid's Elements (c.300 B.C.), appeared at the beginning of this period. Elementary geometry as taught in high school is still largely based on Euclid's presentation, which has served as a model for deductive systems in other parts of mathematics and in other sciences. In this method primitive terms, such as point and line, are first defined, then certain axioms and postulates relating to them and seeming to follow directly from them are stated without proof; a number of statements are then derived by deduction from the definitions, axioms, and postulates. Euclid also contributed to the development of arithmetic and presented a geometric theory of quadratic equations.
''In the 3d century B.C., Archimedes,'' in addition to his work in mechanics, made an estimate of ? and used the exhaustion theory of Eudoxus to obtain results that foreshadowed those much later of the integral calculus, and Apollonius of Perga named the conic sections and gave the first theory for them. A second Alexandrian school of the Roman period included contributions by Menelaus (c.A.D. 100, spherical triangles), Heron of Alexandria (geometry), Ptolemy (A.D. 150, astronomy, geometry, cartography), Pappus (3d century, geometry), and Diophantus (3d century, arithmetic).
!!!Chinese and Middle Eastern Advances
''Following the decline of learning in the West after'' the 3d century, the development of mathematics continued in the East. In China, Tsu Ch'ung-Chih estimated ? by inscribed and circumscribed polygons, as Archimedes had done, and in India the numerals now used throughout the civilized world were invented and contributions to geometry were made by Aryabhata and Brahmagupta (5th and 6th century A.D.). The Arabs were responsible for preserving the work of the Greeks, which they translated, commented upon, and augmented. In Baghdad, Al-Khowarizmi (9th century) wrote an important work on algebra and introduced the Hindu numerals for the first time to the West, and Al-Battani worked on trigonometry. In Egypt, Ibn al-Haytham was concerned with the solids of revolution and geometrical optics. The Persian poet Omar Khayyam wrote on algebra.
!!!Western Developments from the Twelfth to Eighteenth Centuries
''Word of the Chinese and Middle Eastern works began'' to reach the West in the 12th and 13th century One of the first important European mathematicians was Leonardo da Pisa ([[Leonardo Fibonacci|http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_Fibonacci]]), who wrote on arithmetic and algebra (Liber abaci, 1202) and on geometry (Practica geometriae, 1220). With the Renaissance came a great revival of interest in learning, and the invention of printing made many of the earlier books widely available. By the end of the 16th century advances had been made in algebra by Niccolò Tartaglia and Geronimo Cardano, in trigonometry by François Viète, and in such areas of applied mathematics as mapmaking by Mercator and others.
''The 17th century, however, saw the greatest revolution in'' mathematics, as the scientific revolution spread to all fields. Decimal fractions were invented by Simon Stevin and logarithms by John Napier and Henry Briggs; the beginnings of projective geometry were made by Gérard Desargues and Blaise Pascal; number theory was greatly extended by Pierre de Fermat; and the theory of probability was founded by Pascal, Fermat, and others. In the application of mathematics to mechanics and astronomy, Galileo and Johannes Kepler made fundamental contributions.
''The greatest mathematical advances of'' the 17th century, however, were the invention of analytic geometry by René Descartes and that of the calculus by Isaac Newton and, independently, by G. W. Leibniz. Descartes's invention (anticipated by Fermat, whose work was not published until later) made possible the expression of geometric problems in algebraic form and vice versa. It was indispensable in creating the calculus, which built upon and superseded earlier special methods for finding areas, volumes, and tangents to curves, developed by F. B. Cavalieri, Fermat, and others. The calculus is probably the greatest tool ever invented for the mathematical formulation and solution of physical problems.
''The history of mathematics in the'' 18th century is dominated by the development of the methods of the calculus and their application to such problems, both terrestrial and celestial, with leading roles being played by the Bernoulli family (especially Jakob, Johann, and Daniel), Leonhard Euler, Guillaume de L'Hôpital, and J. L. Lagrange. Important advances in geometry began toward the end of the century with the work of Gaspard Monge in descriptive geometry and in differential geometry and continued through his influence on others, e.g., his pupil J. V. Poncelet, who founded projective geometry (1822).
!!!In the Nineteenth Century
''The modern period of mathematics dates from'' the beginning of the 19th century, and its dominant figure is C. F. Gauss. In the area of geometry Gauss made fundamental contributions to differential geometry, did much to found what was first called analysis situs but is now called topology, and anticipated (although he did not publish his results) the great breakthrough of non-Euclidean geometry. This breakthrough was made by N. I. Lobachevsky (1826) and independently by János Bolyai (1832), the son of a close friend of Gauss, whom each proceeded by establishing the independence of Euclid's fifth (parallel) postulate and showing that a different, self-consistent geometry could be derived by substituting another postulate in its place. Still another non-Euclidean geometry was invented by Bernhard Riemann (1854), whose work also laid the foundations for the modern tensor calculus description of space, so important in the general theory of relativity.
''In the area of arithmetic, number theory, and algebra'', Gauss again led the way. He established the modern theory of numbers, gave the first clear exposition of complex numbers, and investigated the functions of complex variables. The concept of number was further extended by W. R. Hamilton, whose theory of quaternions (1843) provided the first example of a noncommutative algebra (i.e., one in which ab ? ba). This work was generalized the following year by H. G. Grassmann, who showed that several different consistent algebras may be derived by choosing different sets of axioms governing the operations on the elements of the algebra.
''These developments continued with the group theory of'' M. S. Lie in the late 19th century and reached full expression in the wide scope of modern abstract algebra. Number theory received significant contributions in the latter half of the 19th century through the work of Georg Cantor, J. W. R. Dedekind, and K. W. Weierstrass. Still another influence of Gauss was his insistence on rigorous proof in all areas of mathematics. In analysis this close examination of the foundations of the calculus resulted in A. L. Cauchy's theory of limits (1821), which in turn yielded new and clearer definitions of continuity, the derivative, and the definite integral. A further important step toward rigor was taken by Weierstrass, who raised new questions about these concepts and showed that ultimately the foundations of analysis rest on the properties of the real number system.
!!!In the Twentieth Century
''In the 20th century the trend has been toward'' increasing generalization and abstraction, with the elements and operations of systems being defined so broadly that their interpretations connect such areas as algebra, geometry, and topology. The key to this approach has been the use of formal axiomatics, in which the notion of axioms as “self-evident truths” has been discarded. Instead the emphasis is on such logical concepts as consistency and completeness. The roots of formal axiomatics lie in the discoveries of alternative systems of geometry and algebra in the 19th century; the approach was first systematically undertaken by David Hilbert in his work on the foundations of geometry (1899).
''The emphasis on deductive logic inherent in this view ''of mathematics and the discovery of the interconnections between the various branches of mathematics and their ultimate basis in number theory led to intense activity in the field of mathematical logic after the turn of the century. Rival schools of thought grew up under the leadership of Hilbert, Bertrand Russell and A. N. Whitehead, and L. E. J. Brouwer. Important contributions in the investigation of the logical foundations of mathematics were made by Kurt Gödel and A. Church.
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''The study of the universe'' and the objects in it through scientific investigation. Since much of contemporary astronomy uses the laws and methods of physics, the terms “astronomy” and “astrophysics” are usually used interchangeably. However, modern astronomy also uses techniques from many other scientific disciplines, including chemistry, geology, and biology, for which the terms astrochemistry, planetary science, and astrobiology are increasingly used.
''The use of geological knowledge'' and methods in analyzing close-up observations from spacecraft of planets and their satellites and of comets and{{imgfloatright{{{textcenter{
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}}} asteroids closely links the disciplines of astronomy and planetary science. Indeed, the discovery of planets around distant stars holds for even closer relations in the future. Methods of studying molecules in interstellar clouds involve chemical knowledge. Planetary science and astrochemistry come together with astronomy in the search for life outside the solar system, part of the search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI). The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the United States space agency, has placed a priority on astrobiology, including the investigation of Mars and the bringing of samples back to Earth from Mars. See also Asteroid; Comet; Cosmochemistry; Extraterrestrial intelligence; Interstellar matter; Planet; Planetary physics; Solar system.
''Astronomers often lead in employing new technologies'', pushing them to the limit in exploring extremely faint signals in various parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. Nearly all astronomical research is now heavily dependent on computers. Astronomical imagery is now dominated by light-sensitive silicon chips known as charge-coupled devices (CCDs), which are approximately 100 times more sensitive than film. Fiber optics are used for a variety of astronomical purposes, including the taking of hundreds of galaxy images simultaneously from the field of view of a telescope and bringing the light to a spectrograph that can produce simultaneous spectra of all the objects. The technology of active optics, in which the shape of a mirror is changed slightly at a high rate (often faster than 1 Hz) to compensate for the blurring of astronomical images caused by the Earth's atmosphere, is being increasingly pursued to eliminate the twinkling of stars. See also Adaptive optics; Fiber-optics imaging.
''The opening of the 5-m (200-in.) Hale telescope'' at the Palomar Observatory on Palomar Mountain, California, in 1948 marked the beginning of a great period of development in optical astronomy.{{imgfloatright{{{textcenter{
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''The 1990s saw the thorough use of the vantage points'' of space for astronomical observation, exemplified by NASA's series of Great Observatories. In 1991 the Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory was launched, and in the following years mapped about one gamma-ray burst per day in addition to many other objects and events. The Hubble Space Telescope was launched in 1990 to study the ultraviolet and visible parts of the spectrum. Its repair in 1993, with secondary mirrors compensating for a focusing problem with the main mirror, brought it to full working order, and a 1996 upgrade included an improved two-dimensional spectrograph and infrared capability. The Chandra X-Ray Observatory, launched in 1999, provides high-resolution x-ray images, and is the same size and scope as Hubble. It studies various types of celestial objects and processes, such as black holes of stellar and galactic sizes. The Space Infrared Telescope Facility, the fourth of this series of Great Observatories, was launched in 2004 and renamed the Spitzer Space Telescope. Smaller spacecraft have also made valuable contributions. See also Black hole; Infrared astronomy; X-ray astronomy; X-ray telescope.
''The atmosphere blocks most of the electromagnetic spectrum'' from reaching the Earth's surface, leaving windows of transparency mostly in the optical and radio parts of the spectrum. {{imgfloatright{{{textcenter{
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''Arecibo dish-Puerto Rico''}}}}}} Radio astronomers have made the most of their window of transparency with such telescopes as the 100-m (328-ft) fully steerable telescope outside Bonn, Germany; ''the 330-m (1083-ft) Arecibo dish in Puerto Rico'', which has some limited tracking ability, the Very Large Array of radio telescopes in New Mexico, and the Very Long Baseline Array. The ozone layer and other constituents of the atmosphere block the shortest wavelengths from penetrating to the Earth's surface, so observations of gamma rays, x-rays, and most of the ultraviolet region require telescopes in space. See also Ozone; Radio astronomy; Radio telescope.
''Much of astronomy involves breaking down'' the incoming celestial radiation into its component wavelengths, a process known as spectroscopy. Spectroscopic studies can reveal the temperature of an object, the identity and proportions of its chemical elements, and the velocities of its constituents toward and away from the Earth. Light from the Sun and other objects is sometimes polarized, and studies of such polarization can tell about the magnetic fields present or about scattering processes. See also Astronomical spectroscopy; Polarimetry.
''The expansive definition of a telescope includes'' anything used in astronomy to observe the sky. Several neutrino telescopes have been used to detect neutrinos from the Sun and, in one instance, from a supernova. The pace of observation of secondary cosmic rays as well as the few primary cosmic rays that reach the Earth is increasing. A pair of interferometers are being built on Earth to attempt direct detection of such gravitational waves, which should result from such distant events as the merger of two neutron stars. See also Cosmic rays; Neutrino; Solar neutrinos.
''Theoretical calculations of the nature of'' astronomical objects or processes are known as theoretical astrophysics. The availability of supercomputers, powerful and fast computers capable of handling large amounts of data, has led to three-dimensional simulations of, for example, the formation of large-scale structure in the early universe. Models of the oscillations detectable on the Sun's surface through long-time-series observations are used to improve understanding of the solar interior, a process known as helioseismology. See also Helioseismology; Simulation; Supercomputer; Universe.
''Laboratory astrophysics involves'' the measurement of basic parameters that are used in calculations of physical or chemical processes relevant to astronomy, such as cross sections of atomic and molecular collisional excitation and ionization. See also Molecular structure and spectra.
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''Wilson Hall at Fermilab''}}}''Formerly called natural philosophy'', physics is concerned with those aspects of nature which can be understood in a fundamental way in terms of elementary principles and laws. In the course of time, various specialized sciences broke away from physics to form autonomous fields of investigation. In this process physics retained its original aim of understanding the structure of the natural world and explaining natural phenomena.
The most basic parts of physics are mechanics and field theory. Mechanics is concerned with the motion of particles or bodies under the action of given forces. The physics of fields is concerned with the origin, nature, and properties of gravitational, electromagnetic, nuclear, and other force fields. Taken together, mechanics and field theory constitute the most fundamental approach to an understanding of natural phenomena which science offers. The ultimate aim is to understand all natural phenomena in these terms. See also Classical field theory; Mechanics; Quantum field theory.
The older, or classical, divisions of physics were based on certain general classes of natural phenomena to which the methods of physics had been found particularly applicable. The divisions are all still current, but many of them tend more and more to designate branches of applied physics or technology, and less and less inherent divisions in physics itself. The divisions or branches, of modern physics are made in accordance with particular types of structures in nature with which each branch is concerned.
In every area physics is characterized not so much by its subject-matter content as by the precision and depth of understanding which it seeks. The aim of physics is the construction of a unified theoretical scheme in mathematical terms whose structure and behavior duplicates that of the whole natural world in the most comprehensive manner possible. Where other sciences are content to describe and relate phenomena in terms of restricted concepts peculiar to their own disciplines, physics always seeks to understand the same phenomena as a special manifestation of the underlying uniform structure of nature as a whole. In line with this objective, physics is characterized by accurate instrumentation, precision of measurement, and the expression of its results in mathematical terms.
For the major areas of physics and for additional listings of articles in physics ''See also:'' @@color:#00f;Acoustics; Atomic physics; Biophysics; Classical mechanics; Electricity; Electromagnetism; Elementary particle; Fluid mechanics; Heat; Low-temperature physics; Molecular physics; Nuclear physics; Optics; Solid-state physics; Statistical mechanics.@@
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''The branch of science concerned with the properties'', composition, and structure of substances and the changes they undergo when they combine or react under specified conditions.
!!!''Branches of Chemistry''
''Chemistry can be divided into'' branches according to either the substances studied or the types of study conducted. The primary division of the first type is between inorganic chemistry and organic chemistry. Divisions of the second type are physical chemistry and analytical chemistry.
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''The original distinction between organic and inorganic chemistry'' arose as chemists gradually realized that compounds of biological origin were quite different in their general properties from those of mineral origin; organic chemistry was defined as the study of substances produced by living organisms. However, when it was discovered in the 19th cent. that organic molecules can be produced artificially in the laboratory, this definition had to be abandoned. Organic chemistry is most simply defined as the study of the compounds of carbon. Inorganic chemistry is the study of chemical elements and their compounds (with the exception of carbon compounds).
''Physical chemistry is concerned with'' the physical properties of materials, such as their electrical and magnetic behavior and their interaction with electromagnetic fields. Subcategories within physical chemistry are thermochemistry, electrochemistry, and chemical kinetics. Thermochemistry is the investigation of the changes in energy and entropy that occur during chemical reactions and phase transformations (see states of matter). Electrochemistry concerns the effects of electricity on chemical changes and interconversions of electric and chemical energy such as that in a voltaic cell. Chemical kinetics is concerned with the details of chemical reactions and of how equilibrium is reached between the products and reactants.
''Analytical chemistry is'' a collection of techniques that allows exact laboratory determination of the composition of a given sample of material. In qualitative analysis all the atoms and molecules present are identified, with particular attention to trace elements. In quantitative analysis the exact weight of each constituent is obtained as well. Stoichiometry is the branch of chemistry concerned with the weights of the chemicals participating in chemical reactions. See also chemical analysis.
!!!History of Chemistry
''The earliest practical knowledge of ''chemistry was concerned with metallurgy, pottery, and dyes; these crafts were developed with considerable skill, but with no understanding of the principles involved, as early as 3500 B.C. in Egypt and Mesopotamia. The basic ideas of element and compound were first formulated by the Greek philosophers during the period from 500 to 300 B.C. Opinion varied, but it was generally believed that four elements (fire, air, water, and earth) combined to form all things. Aristotle's definition of a simple body as “one into which other bodies can be decomposed and which itself is not capable of being divided” is close to the modern definition of element.
''About the beginning of the Christian era'' in Alexandria, the ancient Egyptian industrial arts and Greek philosophical speculations were fused into a new science. The beginnings of chemistry, or alchemy, as it was first known, are mingled with occultism and magic. Interests of the period were the transmutation of base metals into gold, the imitation of precious gems, and the search for the elixir of life, thought to grant immortality. Muslim conquests in the 7th cent. A.D. diffused the remains of Hellenistic civilization to the Arab world. The first chemical treatises to become well known in Europe were Latin translations of Arabic works, made in Spain c.A.D. 1100; hence it is often erroneously supposed that chemistry originated among the Arabs. Alchemy developed extensively during the Middle Ages, cultivated largely by itinerant scholars who wandered over Europe looking for patrons.
!!!Evolution of Modern Chemistry
''In the hands of'' the “Oxford Chemists” (Robert Boyle, Robert Hooke, and John Mayow) chemistry began to emerge as distinct from the pseudoscience of alchemy. Boyle (1627–91) is often called the founder of modern chemistry (an honor sometimes also given Antoine Lavoisier, 1743–94). He performed experiments under reduced pressure, using an air pump, and discovered that volume and pressure are inversely related in gases (see gas laws). Hooke gave the first rational explanation of combustion—as combination with air—while Mayow studied animal respiration. Even as the English chemists were moving toward the correct theory of combustion, two Germans, J. J. Becher and G. E. Stahl, introduced the false phlogiston theory of combustion, which held that the substance phlogiston is contained in all combustible bodies and escapes when the bodies burn.
''The discovery of various gases and'' the analysis of air as a mixture of gases occurred during the phlogiston period. Carbon dioxide, first described by J. B. van Helmont and rediscovered by Joseph Black in 1754, was originally called fixed air. Hydrogen, discovered by Boyle and carefully studied by Henry Cavendish, was called inflammable air and was sometimes identified with phlogiston itself. Cavendish also showed that the explosion of hydrogen and oxygen produces water. C. W. Scheele found that air is composed of two fluids, only one of which supports combustion. He was the first to obtain pure oxygen (1771–73), although he did not recognize it as an element. Joseph Priestley independently discovered oxygen by heating the red oxide of mercury with a burning glass; he was the last great defender of the phlogiston theory.
''The work of Priestley, Black, and Cavendish was radically'' reinterpreted by Lavoisier, who did for chemistry what Newton had done for physics a century before. He made no important new discoveries of his own; rather, he was a theoretician. He recognized the true nature of combustion, introduced a new chemical nomenclature, and wrote the first modern chemistry textbook. He erroneously believed that all acids contain oxygen.
!!!Impact of the Atomic Theory
''The assumption that compounds were'' of definite composition was implicit in 18th-century chemistry. J. L. Proust formally stated the law of constant proportions in 1797. C. L. Berthollet opposed this law, holding that composition depended on the method of preparation. The issue was resolved in favor of Proust by John Dalton's atomic theory (1808). The atomic theory goes back to the Greeks, but it did not prove fruitful in chemistry until Dalton ascribed relative weights to the atoms of chemical elements. Electrochemical theories of chemical combinations were developed by Humphry Davy and J. J. Berzelius. Davy discovered the alkali metals by passing an electric current through their molten oxides. Michael Faraday discovered that a definite quantity of charge must flow in order to deposit a given weight of material in solution. Amedeo Avogadro introduced the hypothesis that equal volumes of gases at the same pressure and temperature contain the same number of molecules.
''William Prout suggested that as'' all elements seemed to have atomic weights that were multiples of the atomic weight of hydrogen, they could all be in some way different combinations of hydrogen atoms. This contributed to the concept of the periodic table of the elements, the culmination of a long effort to find regular, systematic properties among the elements. Periodic laws were put forward almost simultaneously and independently by J. L. Meyer in Germany and D. I. Mendeleev in Russia (1869). An early triumph of the new theory was the discovery of new elements that fit the empty spaces in the table. William Ramsay's discovery, in collaboration with Lord Rayleigh, of argon and other inert gases in the atmosphere extended the periodic table
!!!Organic Chemistry and the Modern Era
''Organic chemistry developed extensively'' in the 19th cent., prompted in part by Friedrich Wohler's synthesis of urea (1828), which disproved the belief that only living organisms could produce organic molecules. Other important organic chemists include Justus von Liebig, C. A. Wurtz, and J. B. Dumas. In 1852 Edward Frankland introduced the idea of valency (see valence), and in 1858 F. A. Kekule showed that carbon atoms are tetravalent and are linked together in chains. Kekule's ring structure for benzene opened the way to modern theories of organic chemistry. Henri Louis Le Châtelier, J. H. van't Hoff, and Wilhelm Ostwald pioneered the application of thermodynamics to chemistry. Further contributions were the phase rule of J. W. Gibbs, the ionization equilibrium theory of S. A. Arrhenius, and the heat theorem of Walther Nernst. Ernst Fischer's work on the amino acids marks the beginning of molecular biology.
''At the end of the 19th century'' the discovery of the electron by J. J. Thomson and of radioactivity by A. E. Becquerel revealed the close connection between chemistry and physics. The work of Ernest Rutherford, H. G. J. Moseley, and Niels Bohr on atomic structure (see atom) was applied to molecular structures. G. N. Lewis, Irving Langmuir, and Linus Pauling developed the electronic theory of chemical bonds, directed valency, and molecular orbitals (see molecular orbital theory). Transmutation of the elements, first achieved by Rutherford, has led to the creation of elements not found in nature; in work pioneered by Glenn Seaborg elements heavier than uranium have been produced. With the rapid development of polymer chemistry after World War II a host of new synthetic fibers and materials have been added to the market. A fuller understanding of the relation between the structure of molecules and their properties has allowed chemists to tailor predictively new materials to meet specific needs.
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}}}''Sciences that involve attempts to understand'' the nature, origin, evolution, and behavior of the Earth or of its parts and to comprehend its place in the universe, especially in the solar system. Understanding has advanced primarily through improved appreciation of the complex, usually cyclical interactions that take place among distinct parts of the Earth such as the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. Geophysics is the study of the physics of the Earth, emphasizing its physical structure and dynamics. Geochemistry is the study of the chemistry of the Earth, dealing with its composition and chemical change. Geology is the study of the solid Earth and of the processes that have formed and modified it throughout its 4.5-billion-year history. See also Geochemistry; Geodesy; Geology; Geophysics; Solar system.
''Many branches of geology are considered'' separate sciences. Mineralogy is the study of the composition, structure, and properties of minerals. Petrology involves understanding how rocks originate and evolve, as well as rock description and classification. Specialties related to petrology include sedimentology and volcanology. Stratigraphy is the study of the origin, age, and development of layered, generally sedimentary rocks. Paleontology is the study of ancient (fossil) life. Historical geology is the study of the evolution of the Earth and its life. Geomorphology is the study of landscapes and their evolution. Seismology is the study of earthquakes and their effects. Structural geology is the study of deformed rocks. Engineering geology relates to the support of human constructions by underlying rock. See also Engineering geology; Geology; Geomorphology; Hydrology; Mineralogy; Paleontology; Petrography; Petrology; Seismology; Stratigraphy; Structural geology; Volcanology.
''Oceanography is the study of'' the oceans; limnology, the study of lakes; hydrology, the study of underground and surface water; and glaciology, the study of glaciers, ice caps, and ice sheets. These disciplines address the study of water in and on the Earth. The gaseous outer parts of the planet are the province of the atmospheric sciences, including meteorology, which is concerned with the weather and weather forecasting; climatology, which deals with longer-term and regional variations; and aeronomy which, because it deals with the outermost ionized region of the atmosphere, is much concerned with solar terrestrial interactions, including the aurora borealis and aurora australis. The biosphere embodies all life on Earth, and its study includes molecular biology, zoology, botany, and ecology. Geography, the study of all that happens at the Earth's surface, has been distinct insofar as it has encompassed not only physical and biological sciences but also the social sciences, including aspects of political science and economics. This distinction is fading rapidly as other earth sciences become more involved with social considerations.
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''The study of animal history as recorded'' by fossil remains. The fossil record includes a very diverse class of objects ranging from molds of microscopic bacteria in rocks more than 3 × 109 years old to unaltered bones of fossil humans in ice-age gravel beds formed only a few thousand years ago. {{textjustify{
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Quality of preservation ranges from the occasional occurrence of soft parts (skin and feathers, for example) to barely decipherable impressions made by shells in soft mud that later hardened to rock. See also Fossil; Micropaleontology.
''The most common fossils are'' hard parts of various animal groups. Thus the fossil record is not an accurate account of the complete spectrum of ancient life but is biased in overrepresenting those forms with shells or skeletons. Fossilized worms are extremely rare, but it is not valid to make the supposition that worms were any less common in the geologic past than they are now. See also Ediacaran biota.
''The data of paleontology consist'' not only of the parts of organisms but also of records of their activities: tracks, trails, and burrows. Even chemical compounds formed only by organisms can, if extracted from ancient rocks, be considered as part of the fossil record. Artifacts made by people, however, are not termed fossils, for these constitute the data of the related science of archeology, the study of human civilizations. See also Archeology; Paleobiochemistry.
''Paleontology lies on the boundary between'' two disciplines, biology and geology. See also Biology; Geology.
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!!!Geological aspects
''A major task of any historical science'', such as geology, is to arrange events in a time sequence and to describe them as fully as possible.
''Fossils only tell'' that a rock is older or younger than another; they do not give absolute age. The decay of radioactive minerals may provide an age in years, but this method is expensive and time-consuming, and cannot always be applied since most rocks lack suitable radioactive minerals. Correlation by fossils remains the standard method for comparing ages of events in different areas. See also Index fossil; Stratigraphy.
''The physical appearance and'' climate of the Earth during a given period of the geologic past can be described from compilation and analysis of the data which is obtained through studies of the habitats of extant fauna, the geographic distribution of fossils, and the climatic preferences of ancient forms of life. See also Paleoclimatology; Paleoecology; Paleogeography.
!!!Biological aspects
''The most fundamental fact of'' paleontology is that organisms have changed throughout earth history and that each geological period has had its characteristic forms of life. An evolutionist has two major interests: first, to know how the process of evolution works; this is accomplished by studying the genetics and population structure of modern organisms; second, to reconstruct the events produced by this process, that is, to trace the history of life. Any modern animal group is merely a stage, frozen at one moment in time, of a dynamic, evolving lineage. Fossils give the only direct evidence of previous stages in these lineages. Horses and rhinoceroses, for example, are very different animals today, but the fossil history of both groups is traced to a single ancestral species that lived early in the Cenozoic Era. From such evidence, a tree of life can be constructed whereby the relationships among organisms can be understood. See also Animal evolution.
}}}
Source: http://www.answers.com/
+++^25em^[précis]<<tiddler LifeSciencesPrécis>>=== <<tabs tabsClass [[Anthropology]] "" [[573 Anthropology]] [[Biology]] "" [[574 Biology]]>>
[[Edit Anthropology Links|Anthropology Links]]
----
<<slider chkAnthropology [[Anthropology Links]] "Click here to open and close Anthropology Links">>
----
!!!![[Anthropology|573 Anthropology]]
{{textjustify{
{{imgfloatleft{{{textcenter{
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}}}''The observation, measurement, and explanation of'' human variability in time and space. This includes both biological variability and the study of cultural, or learned, behavior among contemporary human societies. These studies are closely allied with the fields of archeology and linguistics. Studies range from rigorously scientific approaches, such as research into the physiology, demography, and ecology of hunter-gatherers, to more humanistic research on topics such as symbolism and ritual behavior. See also Archeology; Physical anthropology.
''Anthropology lacks a unified theory'' comparable to neo-Darwinian evolution in the biological sciences and is characterized, instead, by a wide variety of subfields that analyze and integrate studies of human behavior in different ways. Social-cultural anthropology examines the various ways in which learned techniques, values, and beliefs are transmitted from one generation to the next and acted upon in different situations. Most studies stress the historical development and internal structure and workings of particular cultural traditions, and anthropologists have amassed detailed bodies of documentation on different human societies. Significant, too, within social-cultural anthropology are cross-cultural studies that seek to identify essential structural or behavioral properties of human society. Modern scholars have sought to identify universal patterns of symbolic behavior and belief, and there are other social-cultural anthropologists actively testing these kinds of propositions in particular cases.
{{textjustify{
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''Increasingly, social-cultural anthropologists have applied'' their training and skills to issues of contemporary importance such as economic development in third world countries, public policies affecting ethnic minorities, and changes arising from contact between different societies (especially Western and non-Western ones). Sometimes referred to as applied anthropology, such studies are often made in situations where conflicting social values or expectations may arise.
''Cultural linguistics is closely allied with'' both the goals and methods of social-cultural anthropology, especially with respect to the way in which linguists strive for a reliable understanding of how each different language works according to its own sound system (phonology) and grammatical structure. See also Psycholinguistics.
''There has been a developing tendency in anthropology toward'' integration of different subfields. For example, ethnoscience is a subject in which anthropologists apply approaches derived from linguistics to understand the grammatical structure and manipulation of cognitive perceptions by people in different societies of such things as color, weather, and biotic environment. Another growing subfield is ethnoarcheology, in which observations of material behavior (especially discard) in contemporary societies are used to interpret the archeological remains of prehistoric cultures. Modern anthropology is characterized by its breadth and diversity of approaches to the study of variability in human behavior.
Source: http://www.answers.com/
[[Edit Biology Links|Biology Links]]
----
*<<slider chkBiology [[Biology Links]] "Click here to open and close Biology Links">>
----
!!!![[Biology|574 Biology]]
{{textjustify{
{{imgfloatright{
[img[http://img122.imageshack.us/img122/9849/envscihk7.gif]]
}}}''A natural science concerned with the'' study of all living organisms. Although living organisms share some unifying themes, such as their origin from the same basic cellular structure and their molecular basis of inheritance, they are diverse in many other aspects. The diversity of life leads to many divisions in biological science involved with studying all aspects of living organisms. The primary divisions of study in biology consist of zoology (animals), botany (plants), and protistology (one-celled organisms), and are aimed at examining such topics as origins, structure, function, reproduction, growth and development, behavior, and evolution of the different organisms. In addition, biologists consider how living organisms interact with each other and the environment on an individual as well as group basis. Therefore, within these divisions are many subdivisions such as molecular and cellular biology, microbiology (the study of microbes such as bacteria and viruses), taxonomy (the classification of organisms into special groups), physiology (the study of function of the organism at any level), immunology (the investigation of the immune system), genetics (the study of inheritance), and ecology and evolution (the study of the interaction of an organism with its environment and how that interaction changes over time).
''The study of living organisms is'' an ongoing process that allows observation of the natural world and the acquisition of new knowledge. Biologists accomplish their studies through a process of inquiry known as the scientific method, which approaches a problem or question in a well-defined orderly sequence of steps so as to reach conclusions. The first step involves making systematic observations, either directly through the sense of sight, smell, taste, sound, or touch, or indirectly through the use of special equipment such as the microscope. Next, questions are asked regarding the observations. Then a hypothesis—a tentative explanation or educated guess—is formulated, and predictions about what will occur are made. At the core of any scientific study is testing of the hypothesis. Tests or experiments are designed so as to help substantiate or refute the basic assumptions set forth in the hypothesis. Therefore, experiments are repeated many times. Once they have been completed, data are collected and organized in the form of graphs or tables and the results are analyzed. Also, statistical tests may be performed to help determine whether the data are significant enough to support or disprove the hypothesis. Finally, conclusions are drawn that provide explanations or insights about the original problem. By employing the scientific method, biologists aim to be objective rather than subjective when interpreting the results of their experiments. Biology is not absolute: it is a science that deals with theories or relative truths. Thus, biological conclusions are always subject to change when new evidence is presented. As living organisms continue to evolve and change, the science of biology also will evolve. See also Animal; Botany; Cell biology; Ecology; Genetics; Immunology; Microbiology; Plant; Zoology.
}}}
Source: http://www.answers.com/
[[Edit Botany Links|Botany Links]]
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*<<slider chkBotany [[Botany Links]] "Click here to open and close Botany Links">>
----
!!!![[Botany|580 Botany]]
{{textjustify{
{{imgfloatright{{{textcenter{
[img[http://img45.imageshack.us/img45/3553/stripecg9.jpg]]
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}}}''That branch of biological science which'' embraces the study of plants and plant life. Botanical studies may range from microscopic observations of the smallest and obscurest plants to the study of the trees of the forest. One botanist may be interested mainly in the relationships among plants and in their geographic distribution, whereas another may be primarily concerned with structure or with the study of the life processes taking place in plants.
''Botany may be divided by subject matter into'' several specialties, such as plant anatomy, plant chemistry, plant cytology, plant ecology (including autecology and synecology), plant embryology, plant genetics, plant morphology, plant physiology, plant taxonomy, ethnobotany, and paleobotany. It may also be divided according to the group of plants being studied; for example, agostology, the study of grasses; algology (phycology), the study of algae; bryology, the study of mosses; mycology, the study of fungi; and pteridology, the study of ferns. Bacteriology and virology are also parts of botany in a broad sense. Furthermore, a number of agricultural subjects have botany as their foundation. Among these are agronomy, floriculture, forestry, horticulture, landscape architecture, and plant breeding. See also Agriculture; Agronomy; Bacteriology; Cell biology; Ecology; Floriculture; Genetics; Landscape architecture; Paleobotany; Plant anatomy; Plant growth; Plant morphogenesis; Plant pathology; Plant physiology; Plant taxonomy.
}}}
Source: http://www.answers.com/
[[Edit Zoology Links|Zoology Links]]
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*<<slider chkZoology [[Zoology Links]] "Click here to open and close Zoology Links">>
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!!!![[Zoology|590 Zoology]]
{{textjustify{
{{imgfloatleft{{{textcenter{
[img[http://img443.imageshack.us/img443/5043/zoologygo4.gif]]
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}}}''The science that deals with knowledge of'' animal life. With the great growth of information about animals, zoology has been much subdivided.
Some major fields are anatomy, which deals with gross and microscopic structure; physiology, with living processes in animals; embryology, with development of new individuals; genetics, with heredity and variation; parasitology, with animals living in or on others; natural history, with life and behavior in nature; ecology, with the relation of animals to their environments; evolution, with the origin and differentiation of animal life; and taxonomy, with the classification of animals.
See also Anatomy, regional; Developmental biology; Genetics; Parasitology; Phylogeny; Plant evolution.
}}}
Source: http://www.answers.com/
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<<gradient horiz #fc3 #ffffff>> [[ABC 92.9FM|ABC 92.9FM]]>>
{{borderless{
|<<gradient horiz #abf #fff >><<tiddler ./player>>>>|<<gradient horiz #fff #abf>> <<tiddler ./92.9FM>>>>|
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<part 92.9FM hidden>
{{textleftpad5{
[img[www.abc.net.au_FM.jpg]]
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@@color:#c06;''•'' @@ [[RealPlayer|http://www.abc.net.au/streaming/classic/classicfm.ram]]
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<part player hidden>
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<html><embed type="video/x-ms-asf" id="player_FF" name="player_FF" displaysize="4" autosize="0"
bgcolor="white" showcontrols="true" showtracker="1" showdisplay="1" showstatusbar="1" videoborder3d="0" width="300" height="142" src="http://www.abc.net.au/streaming/classic/classicfm.asx" autostart="true" designtimesp="5311" loop="false" volume="100"></embed></html>
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<script>
place.style.backgroundColor="#abf"; /* set background color */
place.style.color="#c06"; /* set text color */
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!!!!!<<gradient horiz #ccc; #fff>> [[ABC-TV|ABC-TV]] [img[http://img264.imageshack.us/img264/2087/radiotvzt7.gif]] ^^<<tiddler CloseThisOpen with: TVSchedules '« back'>>|<<toolbar editTiddler>>» ^^>>
{{borderless{
|vertical-align:bottom;<<toolbar fullscreen>><<toggleSideBar>>|<<tiddler NavButtons>>|vertical-align:bottom;[[Open in a new window|http://www.abc.net.au/tv/guide/]] »|
----
<html><div align="center"><iframe src ="http://www.abc.net.au/tv/guide/" width="100%" align="center" height="600" scrolling="auto" frameborder="0" allowtransparency style="border:none;></iframe></div></html>}}}
{{borderless{
|vertical-align:middle;<<fullscreen>>|[img[http://img295.imageshack.us/img295/9558/whtblkwhtyi3.gif]]|vertical-align:middle;<<toggleSideBar>>|
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/%
|Name|MiniBrowser|
|Source|http://www.TiddlyTools.com/#MiniBrowser|
|Version|0.0.0|
|Author|Eric Shulman - ELS Design Studios|
|License|http://www.TiddlyTools.com/#LegalStatements <<br>>and [[Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 2.5 License|http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5/]]|
|~CoreVersion|2.1|
|Type|script|
|Requires|InlineJavascriptPlugin, MiniBrowserList|
|Overrides||
|Description|use an 'inline frame' to display another site inside a tiddler with navigation buttons and a dropdown list of favorite URLs.|
Usage:
<<tiddler MiniBrowser with: id>>
where:
id - (optional) specifies an ID to assign to the DOM element for the embedded IFRAME. If you want to have **more than one** MiniBrowser displayed at a time, you MUST provide an ID, so that each MiniBrowser can be uniquely identified within the DOM structure.
Note: MiniBrowserList can be *empty*, but must already exist for you to ADD a favorite to the list. If you don't copy the sample list from TiddlyTools, be sure to create this tiddler in your own document if you intend to use the MiniBrowser's "favorites" droplist.
%/<html><form target="browser_$1" style="margin:0;padding:0;"
onsubmit="this.action=this.url.value; this.form.done.disabled=false" style="margin:0;padding:0"><nobr><!--
--><input type="button" value="<" title="back" style="font-size:8pt;width:3%"
onclick="try{window.frames['browser_$1'].history.go(-1)}catch(e){window.history.go(-1)}" ><!--
--><input type="button" value=">" title="forward" style="font-size:8pt;width:3%"
onclick="try{window.frames['browser_$1'].history.go(+1)}catch(e){window.history.go(+1)}"><!--
--><input type="button" value="+" title="refresh"style="font-size:8pt;width:3%"
onclick="window.frames['browser_$1'].location.reload()"><!--
--><input type="button" value="x" title="stop"style="font-size:8pt;width:3%"
onclick="window.stop()"><!--
--><select name="bookmarks" id="browser_bookmarks_$1" size="1" style="font-size:8pt;width:21%"
onchange="var f=document.getElementById('browser_$1'); if (!this.value.length) return window.miniBrowserResetSize(); else window.miniBrowserSetSize(this.form); this.form.url.value=this.value; this.form.action=this.value; this.form.submit(); this.form.done.disabled=false">
<option value="">ABC Browser.. choose</option>
</select><!--
--><input type="button" value="add" title="add this URL to the MiniBrowser bookmarks" style="font-size:8pt;width:5%"
onclick="window.miniBrowserAddBookmark(this.form.url);"><!--
--><input type="button" value="del" title="remove this URL from the MiniBrowser bookmarks" style="font-size:8pt;width:5%"
onclick="window.miniBrowserDeleteBookmark(this.form.bookmarks);"><!--
--><input type="button" value="edit" title="edit the MiniBrowser bookmarks list definition" style="font-size:8pt;width:5%"
onclick="story.displayTiddler(null,'MiniBrowserList',2)"><!--
--><input type="text" name="url" size="60" value="" style="font-size:8pt;width:35%"
onfocus="this.select();" onkeyup="var k=event.keyCode; if (k==13|k==10) this.form.go.click();"><!--
--><input type="button" name="go" value="go" title="view this URL" style="font-size:8pt;width:4%"
onclick="if(!this.form.url.value.length) return; window.miniBrowserSetSize(this.form); this.form.action=this.form.url.value; this.form.submit(); this.form.done.disabled=false"><!--
--><input type="button" value="open" title="open this URL in a separate window" style="font-size:8pt;width:6%"
onclick="if(this.form.url.value.length) window.open(this.form.url.value)"><!--
--><input type="button" value="done" name="done" title="stop viewing this URL" disabled style="font-size:8pt;width:6%"
onclick="this.form.url.value=''; this.form.bookmarks.selectedIndex=0; window.miniBrowserResetSize(); this.disabled=true;">
<iframe name="browser_$1" id="browser_$1" style="width:100%;height:1em;display:none;background:#fff;border:1px solid"></iframe><div id="browser_resize_$1" style="text-align:center;marginTop:2px;display:none;font-size:8pt"><!--
--> size: <input type="text" name="w" size="3" value="100%" style="font-size:8pt;"
onfocus="this.select()"><!--
-->x<input type="text" name="h" size="3" value="400" style="font-size:8pt;"
onfocus="this.select()"><!--
--> <input type="button" value="set" style="font-size:8pt;"
onclick="var w=this.form.w.value.trim(); if (!w||!w.length) w='100%'; var h=this.form.h.value.trim(); if (!h||!h.length) h='400'; if (!w.replace(/[0-9]*/,'').length) w+='px'; if (!h.replace(/[0-9]*/,'').length) h+='px'; var f=document.getElementById('browser_$1'); f.style.width=w; f.style.height=h;"><!--
--><input type="button" value="reset" style="font-size:8pt;"
onclick="var w='100%'; var h='400'; var f=document.getElementById('browser_$1'); f.style.width=w; f.style.height=h+'px'; this.form.w.value=w; this.form.h.value=h;"><!--
--><input type="button" value="fit" title="resize to fit containing window" style="font-size:8pt;"
onclick="window.miniBrowserFitSize(this)"><!--
--></div></nobr></form></html><script>
// load bookmarks droplist from HR-separated "MiniBrowserList" tiddler contents
var here=document.getElementById("browser_bookmarks_$1");
while (here.length) here.options[0]=null; // remove current list items
here.options[here.length]=new Option("ABC Browser...","",true,true);
var list=store.getTiddlerText("MiniBrowserList");
if (list && list.trim().length) {
var parts=list.split("\n----\n");
for (var p=0; p<parts.length; p++) {
var lines=parts[p].split("\n");
var label=lines.shift(); // 1st line=display text
var value=lines.shift(); // 2nd line=item value
var indent=value&&value.length?"\xa0\xa0":"";
here.options[here.length]=new Option(indent+label,value,false,false);
}
}
window.miniBrowserSetSize = function(form) {
var f=document.getElementById('browser_$1');
var w=form.w.value.trim(); if (!w||!w.length) w='100%'; if (!w.replace(/[0-9]*/,'').length) w+='px';
var h=form.h.value.trim(); if (!h||!h.length) h='400'; if (!h.replace(/[0-9]*/,'').length) h+='px';
f.style.width=w; f.style.height=h; f.style.display="block";
document.getElementById('browser_resize_$1').style.display="block";
return false;
}
window.miniBrowserResetSize = function() {
var f=document.getElementById('browser_$1');
if (f.src.length) f.src="";
f.style.width='100%'; f.style.height='1em'; f.style.display="none";
document.getElementById('browser_resize_$1').style.display="none";
return false;
}
window.miniBrowserFitSize = function(place) {
var trim=88; // fudge factor for controls + padding + borders. ADJUST TO FIT LAYOUT
var t=story.findContainingTiddler(place);
if (!t) { t=place; while (t && t.className!='floatingPanel') t=t.parentNode; } if (!t) return;
var w="100%"; // horizontal stretching via CSS works, but vertical stretching doesn't... so:
var h=(t.offsetHeight-trim); // workaround: get containing panel/tiddler height and subtract "trim" height
place.form.w.value=w; place.form.h.value=h; // update width/height input fields
var f=document.getElementById('browser_$1');
f.style.width=w; f.style.height=h+"px";
}
window.miniBrowserAddBookmark = function(place) {
var v=place.value; if (!v.length) return;
var d=prompt("Please enter a description for\n"+place.value); if (!d || !d.length) return;
var t = store.getTiddler("MiniBrowserList"); t.set(null,"%0\n%1\n----\n%2".format([d,v,t.text]));
var here=story.findContainingTiddler(place);
if (here) story.refreshTiddler(here.getAttribute("tiddler"),1,true);
story.refreshTiddler("MiniBrowserList",1,true);
story.refreshTiddler("MiniBrowser",1,true);
store.setDirty(true);
}
window.miniBrowserDeleteBookmark = function(place) {
var v=place.value; if (!v.length) return;
var d=place.options[place.selectedIndex].text; if (!d.length) return;
var t = store.getTiddler("MiniBrowserList");
if (!confirm("Are you sure you want to remove this MiniBrowser bookmark?\n\n"+d+"\n"+v)) return;
var pat='%0\n%1\n----\n'.format([d.replace(/\xa0/g,''),v]); var re=new RegExp(pat,"i");
t.set(null,t.text.replace(re,""));
var here=story.findContainingTiddler(place);
if (here) story.refreshTiddler(here.getAttribute("tiddler"),1,true);
story.refreshTiddler("MiniBrowserList",1,true);
story.refreshTiddler("MiniBrowser",1,true);
store.setDirty(true);
}
</script><<tiddler HideTiddlerTags>>
+++[+ Mailing Lists]
{{membersmove{
[[Subscribe|Subscribe to Science-Matters]]
[[Unsubscribe|Unsubscribe to Science-Matters]]
}}}
===
{{textleft{
<<toolbar editTiddler>>
}}}
{{scrollauto{
{{textcenter{
{{headline{
''==== ABC Science Updates, 18 December 2008 ====''
}}}
----
==== NEW ON ABC SCIENCE ONLINE ====
==== http://www.abc.net.au/science ====
}}}
== SUMMER SCIENCE ==
Wishing you a happy holiday and festive season from all at ABC Science
Online. This is the last Science Updates for 2008. We will send the next
Science Updates on 22 January, 2009. Until then, we’ve turned our website
into relaxed summer mode, featuring some great fodder for holiday reading,
listening and viewing. Enjoy!
http://abcmail.net.au/t/351820/683109/2447/0/
== COMPETITION: WATER IN NATURE==
Summer is a great time to think about how water – or lack of it – affects
our lives. Send us your photos of water in nature and you could win a $100
ABC Shop gift voucher! http://abcmail.net.au/t/351820/683109/6666/0/
== QUIZ: SCIENCE AT THE MOVIES ==
Can you tell the difference between science fiction and science fact? Take
our quiz on the science behind some popular movies and find out.
http://abcmail.net.au/t/351820/683109/6660/0/
== INDEPTH: KEEPING TIME ==
As the song says: “Time keeps on slipping”. Now science is looking to the
past to help us tell time in the future.
http://abcmail.net.au/t/351820/683109/6667/0/
== ACE DAY JOBS: MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGIST ==
Mozzie man Cameron Webb had no idea his love of the environment would lead
him to become a specialist in disease-carrying insects - a medical
entomologist. http://abcmail.net.au/t/351820/683109/6647/0/
PLUS: Watch the Surfing Scientist at the beach, catch up with StarStuff,
explore our photo galleries and more.
http://abcmail.net.au/t/351820/683109/2447/0/
== TOP STORIES FROM NEWS IN SCIENCE ==
http://abcmail.net.au/t/351820/683109/1759/0/
SANTA'S MAGIC BASED ON SCIENCE
Ever wondered how Santa Claus can travel around the world in just one
night on his reindeer-pulled sleigh and deliver toys to all the children?
http://abcmail.net.au/t/351820/683109/6668/0/
GLOBAL METHANE LEVELS MOVE UPWARD AGAIN
Methane levels in the atmosphere have started to rise after almost eight
years of near-zero growth, an international study says.
http://abcmail.net.au/t/351820/683109/6669/0/
YAWNING COOLS THE BRAIN
If your head is overheated, there's a good chance you'll yawn, according
to a new study that found the primary purpose of yawning is to control
brain temperature. http://abcmail.net.au/t/351820/683109/6635/0/
STUDY SHOWS KOALAS ARE NOT DWARVES
Australia's iconic koala is not a dwarf and the finding has major
implications for theories on what happened to the continent's prehistoric
megafauna, a Queensland palaeontologist says.
http://abcmail.net.au/t/351820/683109/6670/0/
== ABC GREEN AT WORK ==
http://abcmail.net.au/t/351820/683109/2581/0/
== ABC STARS MAKE SOME GREEN NEW YEAR’S RESOLUTIONS ==
What’s Adam Spencer (ABC Sydney) got against lamb chops? Why is Rosie
Beaton (Triple J) snooping in the garbage bins? How will Natasha Mitchell
(All in the Mind) look after 20,000 worms? Find out on Green at Work, when
ABC stars confess their Green New Year’s Resolutions. Starts Jan 6, 2009.
http://abcmail.net.au/t/351820/683109/2581/0/
== IN THE SKY THIS SUMMER ==
The Moon: Last Quarter is Friday 19 December, New Moon is Saturday 22
December, First Quarter is Sunday 4 January and Full Moon is Sunday 11
January.
Evening planets: Venus and Jupiter initially form a distinctive line in
the evening sky with Mercury just visible below them. Venus is easily
recognized as the brightest object in the Western evening sky, and Jupiter
is the next brightest below and to the left of it. Jupiter heads towards
the horizon and Mercury rises, so by Christmas Day the two can be easily
seen together in the evening twilight. On the evening of Monday 29
December, the Moon passes in front of Jupiter. This is a rather rare
event, and with Mercury close by and Venus above it will be beautiful to
watch. The Moon going in front of Jupiter occurs just after sunset in the
early twilight, so you will need binoculars or a small telescope to see
it. On December 31 Mercury and Jupiter are very close, and the crescent
moon is close to Venus.
On 1 January the International Year of Astronomy starts, so look up! Soon
after Jupiter and Mercury are lost in the glow of twilight. On 22 December
Earth is at solstice, when the day is longest, and on 5 January the Earth
is at perihelion, its closest approach to the Sun.
Saturn can be easily seen as the second brightest object above the
north-east